Contributions

Dr. Jolanta Ambrosewicz-Jacobs
Research Center on Jewish History and Culture in Poland
at the Jagiellonian University, Cracow
uwambros@if.uj.edu.pl
Project sponsored by the Open Society Foundation, grant RSS 122/98

ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF EDUCATION IN OVERCOMING ETHNIC PREJUDICES IN POLAND

Abstract

The goal of the paper is to give information on the results of the study on prejudice, particularly to gives an overview of the forms of ethnocentrism as conceptualized and operationalized during the research on ethnic attitudes. In Part I of the paper, various forms of attitudes toward ethnic minorities among Polish youth in relation to stereotypes are being studied through a nationwide survey of a representative sample of 1002 secondary school students. The central variables are ethnocentrism and anti-Semitism. In the discussion attention will be paid to differentiating results by sex, parents education, type of school and geographic location.

The content and structure of ethnocentric and anti-Semitic beliefs in the context of attitudes toward minorities are being studied as well.

In Part II the paper will present the results of a longitudinal study dealing with three experimental educational programs of secondary schools. Consideration will be given to the effects of educational programs on attitudes change. Three quasi-experimental high school classes were chosen for comparison of their attitudes with the attitudes of control groups - classes from the same school but not under the influence of special educational approaches. The classes in this study were all tenth grades, from the VIII Lyceum (= general high school) in Cracow, the LXIV Lyceum in Warsaw, and the I Lyceum in Łomża.

The evaluation was intended to determine whether the goals of particular projects have been achieved, related to the personal development of the pupils, development of their attitudes and skills. Since personal development is very difficult to measure, attitudes toward minorities and skills of communication were investigated at the beginning of the evaluation, for comparison a year and a half later. For evaluation of educational programs the following techniques were introduced: Focus Group Interview, direct interviewing of teachers, and projective techniques: complete-the-sentence test, drawings, and survey. Each student from the experimental and control classes drew a self-portrait, factors influencing him or her as a member of a particular ethnic group, a Jew, and a Gypsy (altogether 648 pictures). Analysis of the data related to evaluation of three experimental programs confirmed a preliminary hypothesis that education makes a difference. Students from classes with alternative programs scored better on tests, although not in all dimensions and not at every lyceum where the study was done.

School solidifies what divides rather than what connects us, and does little to create open attitudes or a positive image of human diversity. Although this idea is not new, as it is familiar from my own experience in school, presented study, undertaken twenty years later (and ten years after the fall of Communism), has confirmed that Polish education is changing much more slowly than political and economic structures are.

System of work

In Part I of the research, various forms of attitudes toward ethnic minorities among Polish youth in relation to stereotypes are being studied through a nationwide survey of a representative sample of 1002 secondary school students. The central variables are ethnocentrism and anti-Semitism. Among the independent variables are acceptance of others, parental acceptance, acceptability to others, self-esteem, region of Poland, knowledge about minorities, willingness to learn about minorities, contacts with minorities, religiousness, parent's education, and type of school. The authoritarian personality as a variable was not included since there are numerous studies which confirm the correlation found in the famous study by Adorno et al. The content and structure of ethnocentric and anti-Semitic beliefs in the context of attitudes toward minorities are being studied as well.

In Part II the research will present the results of a longitudinal study dealing with three experimental educational programs of secondary schools. Parts I and II are being conducted simultaneously.

It seems that a classical survey is not sufficient to understand issues related to ethnocentric attitudes, although it allows a preliminary description. A qualitative study was planned in order to complete the knowledge obtained in the quantitative study, to investigate the mechanism and process of ethnocentric attitudes. How are images of minorities created? What is the motivation to express certain attitudes?

Three quasi-experimental high school classes were chosen for comparison of their attitudes with the attitudes of control groups - classes from the same school but not under the influence of special educational approaches. The classes in this study were all tenth grades, from the VIII Lyceum (= general high school) in Cracow, the LXIV Lyceum in Warsaw, and the I Lyceum in Łomża.

Methods

The work gives an overview of the forms of ethnocentrism as conceptualized and operationalized during the research on ethnic attitudes. It will be tested whether forms of ethnocentrism can be distinguished empirically. Attitudes are multidimensional phenomena. They consist of three components: cognitive or belief-related, affective or emotive, and conative or behavior-oriented. Social researchers consider stereotypes as cognitive components of intergroup attitudes. In this research the operationalization of ethnic attitudes was restricted to the cognitive level with the exception of two items related to measuring behavioral intentions. Emotional or affective responses were not measured, nor were behavior in an interethnic context, except for the open-ended Q53 in which self-reported statements related to emotional reactions toward 14 representatives of national and ethnic representatives were requested.

In social studies it is impossible to rely on one method (technique) of research. The approach taken in this paper is innovative compared to previous work on ethnic attitudes in that it combines quantitative and qualitative methods, and also uses verbal (Focus Group Interview, survey, face-to-face interviews, complete-the-sentence test) and non-verbal (drawings) techniques to study attitudes.

For Part I a self-reported questionnaire was administered to a representative sample of Polish youth from the tenth grade (16-17 years old) to learn about the distribution of their attitudes and beliefs concerning ethnic minorities. In the nationwide survey, respondents were asked to indicate whether they agree or disagree with statements about ethnic minorities or whether they favor or disfavor contact with members of these groups.

Despite many obstacles in applying the methodology of the physical sciences to social reality, the panel study is an attractive way to study the direction of the educational process and the interdependence of different factors.

Altogether the students drew 648 pictures which were scanned and printed in a form allowing analysis of possible correlations.

Preliminary hypotheses

The project was aimed at assessing the level of ethnic prejudices and determining the results of educational programs introduced already. The question was whether and how the extent of tolerance and cultural openness changes under the influence of elements purposely included in the curriculum during a set period of time. The effect of these special curricula developed for high school students will be examined.

Several hypotheses were formulated:

that Polish students generally are not familiar with concepts of minorities, do not know much about minorities living currently in Poland, and are not aware of problems between the majority and minorities occurring in different parts of the Polish socio-political landscape
that ethnic prejudices exist among adolescents. The level of prejudice, measured on a social distance scale (modification of Bogartus) will correlate with general acceptance of others, openness, self-acceptance, contacts with minorities, knowledge about minorities, willingness to learn about minorities, and a supportive pattern of parenting.
that educational programs will make a difference in attitudes of students toward minorities and can reduce ethnocentric and anti-Semitic attitudes.
that students with high self-esteem scores will also tend to accept others, to feel accepted by others, and are likely to be less ethnocentric and anti-Semitic than students with low self-esteem score.

Preliminary findings of the survey

The sample consisted of 1002 students (43.6% girls, 56.4% boys). 52.9% of them were age 16, 41.5% age 17, 5.2% age 18, and .3% age 19. 24% of the respondents live in villages, 16.5% in towns of 10,000-50,000 inhabitants, 11.9% in cities of 50,000-100,000, and 46.7% lives in cities of over 100,000. 91.4% of the respondents declare themselves to be Catholics.

The most important finding was that students' attitudes toward minorities are polarized. For example, 24% strongly agree with cliché "Poland for the Poles," and the same percentage strongly disagrees with the statement; 19% of students rather agree, and 16.5% rather disagree. 16.9% of the sample confirm that "It is important to know if someone is of foreign birth or not" (Q2), 23.5% rather agree with the statement, 26.2% rather disagree, and 24.8%.

Anti-Semitic attitudes are present among the surveyed youth. More students (22.2% strongly and 20.5% rather) agree with cliché "On account of their origins, Jews never were and never will be true Poles (Q38) than disagree (18% rather, 13.8% strongly). As many as 53.4% object to Jews being in our government (Q40), as compared to 23.9% who do not object.

Projective tests

Total results of experimental groups from Cracow and Warsaw (B1+B2) compared to results of control groups (A1+A2) in all four investigated social attitudes:

there are significant positive differences in the experimental classes. In groups B1 and B2 more students expressed a "positive attitude toward people" and "readiness to cooperate"
the majority of students of experimental classes did not reveal two other features: "isolation" and "negative attitude toward people." In the experimental classes there were fewer students with a clear "negative attitude toward people," in relation to both "Jew" and "Gypsy"
on the other hand, the results from the experimental class in Łomża do not confirm this tendency. Some variables tend in the opposite direction. In the experimental class there are fewer students with a "positive attitude toward people" in relation to both "Jew" and "Gypsy"

For "mood" (cheerful, sad, aggressive), where the mood is interpreted as an emotional attitude toward Jews and Gypsies:

in all experimental groups there were significantly more positive emotional attitudes toward Jews and Gypsies compared to the control classes - more drawings with a cheerful mood
there were positive differences in two other categories - fewer sad and aggressive drawings in the experimental classes in relation to both ethnic groups
the only exception was that group B3 (Łomża) had slightly worse results for "sad" and "aggressive" in relation to Gypsies
comparing the results of all A (A1+A2+A3) to all B (B1+B2+B3+) groups, we see positive tendencies in all valuations of mood

Colors - One-color versus multicolor drawings

no positive tendencies in the experimental groups versus the control groups were determined
the opposite tendency was also noted - more one-color drawings, for example: in Warsaw group A2 there were 40% one-color drawings, while B2 had 60% (topic "Jew")

New ideas the project brought to me

Taking into account that Polish youth have limited knowledge of minorities living currently in our country and that problems of minorities are peripheral to their awareness, I did not expect students to be unaware that in the past our country was multiethnic and multicultural, and that it provided refuge to people of different religions, persecuted elsewhere. Asked which statements of the questionnaire were the most difficult for them, students answered that those dealing with the topic of minorities, and Q56. Asked to give names of great Poles whose ancestors belonged to other nations (Q56), they evidently had a problem with the answer. This finding, based on the nationwide survey, indicates that the Polish education system changed insufficiently after 1989.

The preliminary analysis of EIDE also shows that the identity of most young Poles is built around traditional, "national" values such as the Church, victories over national enemies, and national heroes taken from history textbooks. A national identity with a multicultural perspective remains wishful thinking at the moment. At the same time it calls for attention from educational policy makers, particularly now, when the Polish educational system is undergoing reform (in September 1999 a middle school called "gymnasium" will be introduced, with a system of teaching in thematic blocks, and a curriculum giving much more freedom to teachers).

Unfortunately, the number of Poles completing higher education is low, so the worldview of our citizenry is constructed largely at home. So far school does not correct the misinformation or attitudes brought from home. Relations between neighboring countries are seen as hostile rather than friendly. School solidifies what divides rather than what connects us, and does little to create open attitudes or a positive image of human diversity. Although this idea is not new, as it is familiar from my own experience in school, this study, undertaken twenty years later (and ten years after the fall of Communism), has confirmed that Polish education is changing much more slowly than political and economic structures are.

In previous research on ethnic prejudice, the respondents did not agree with prejudiced statements but showed prejudiced behavior in certain manipulated contexts. It can be hypothesized that the more subtle the form of racism is, the more subtle the operationalization must be to measure the phenomenon. In many research projects the respondents are asked how they will behave toward ethnic groups in the future, or they are asked to recall past behavior. Only in a few cases do researchers register actual interethnic behavior (Kleinpenning, 145). As a tool of evaluation of educational programs, simulation techniques or drama in an interethnic context, confronted with the quantitative data of surveys and results of analysis of projective techniques, could shed more light on the topic of prejudice.

APPENDIX

I. The Questionnaire

The Public Opinion and Public Needs Unit of the Jagiellonian University Sociology Institute is conducting research among secondary school students on important social issues. The survey is anonymous. Every honest answer to the questionnaire is a good one.
1. Foreign investment in Poland is a threat to our country. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
2. It is important to know if someone is of foreign birth or not. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
3. It is good that there are foreigners living here and that they will come here in the future. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
4. Foreign influences are a threat to our culture. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
5. "Poland for the Poles." (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
6. It would be better if no foreigners lived in Poland. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
7. Poles are more talented and resourceful than other nations. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
8. Polish land should not be sold to foreigners. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
9. The majority of our country's problems are the result of foreign influences. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
10. I am interested in getting to know people from other cultural groups. (yes, no)
11. It doesn't bother me when people have beliefs different from mine. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
12. I am often criticized by others. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
13. I am satisfied with myself. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
14. I am accepted by others. (very often, often, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
15. People should be forgiven their transgressions. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
16. I feel worthless. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
17. It is worthwhile to trust people. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
18. Most people care only about themselves. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
19. Other people like me. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
20. Nowadays most people act unethically. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
21. People take seriously what I think about a given subject. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
22. In every person there is above all a tendency toward evil which surfaces when the circumstances are conducive. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
23. I think nothing will turn out right for me. (very often, often, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
24. I have trouble making and keeping close friendships. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
25. People are honest only from fear of punishment. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
26. I don't feel good in my environment. (always, almost always, sometimes, rarely, very rarely)
27. I am sure I have many good features. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
28. When we know a person's national origin we know what to expect from him. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
29. The presence of national minorities in Poland, including ethnic groups, enriches our culture. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
30. I think that attacks on foreigners by Polish skinheads are bad and completely unjustified. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
31. The law should not protect national minorities in special ways. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
For statements 32 and 33, if you think that the statement is true of some national minority, write in the name of that minority in the space. If you think that the statements are not true, don't write in the space.
32. A person of ........ origin cannot be a true Pole.
33. ........ cause problems in Poland.
34. Anti-Jewish graffiti disturb and shame me. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
35. Jews are greedy. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
36. The Jews have Israel, so Poland should be for the Poles. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
37. Our economy would develop better if not for the influence of Jews. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
38. On account of their origins, Jews never were and never will be true Poles. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
39. Do modern Jews bear responsibility for the crucifixion of Christ? (yes, no, don't know)
40. I would not object to Jews being in our government too. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
41. Jews have too much influence in some areas of Poland's social life. (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
42. I think some restrictions should be introduced for the members of minority groups, compared to Poles. (yes, no, don't know)
43. If yes, name the minority group and the type of restriction
Minority group What restriction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
44. Do you think that Poles could learn something from other national minorities living in Poland? (yes, no, don't know)
45. If you answered yes, then from whom and what?
From whom? What could be learned? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
46. I have minority group friends. (yes, no)
47. If yes, what minority groups? ........
48. I have minority group acquaintances. (yes, no)
49. If yes, what minority groups? ........
50. How many?
51. Have you had at least brief contact with a foreigner? (yes, no)
52. How many?
53. What associations and feelings do you have for:
A. Swedes B. Romanians C. Italians D. Jews E. Americans F. Gypsies G. Russians H. Germans I. Lithuanians J. Ukrainians K. Blacks L. Chinese Ł. Arabs M. Slovaks
54. What kind of attitude do you think members of the following nations and races have toward Poles. Put an x in the appropriate space.
Friendly Indifferent Neutral Unfriendly
1. Americans 2. Romanians 3. Arabs 4. Swedes 5. Jews 6. Chinese 7. Germans 8. Lithuanians 9. Blacks 10. Russians 11. Italians 12. Ukrainians 13. Gypsies
55. Put an x in every space where you agree with the statement given.
I would not mind if an American a Russian a Gypsy a Swede a Jew a Black a Ukrainian an Arab a German
1. became my neighbor 2. sat next to me in school 3. tented with me on vacation 4. went to a party with me 5. asked me to go out on a date 6. became my husband/wife.
56. Which eminent Poles had ancestors belonging to another nation?
Name of person Origin of ancestors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
57. What national minorities live in Poland at the present time?
58. I would like to learn more about national minorities living in Poland (yes, no)
59. Do you think that the presence of some minorities can be beneficial for Poland and the Poles?
60. If you answered yes, which minorities do you think can benefit Poland and the Poles by their presence?
61. Do you think that some of the minorities living in our country can harm Poland and the Poles? (yes, no, don't know)
62. If you answered yes, which minorities do you think can harm Poland and the Poles by their presence?
63. One can sometimes observe anti-Jewish attitudes of certain people. What do you think the reasons are? Underline the selected answers.
1. A lack of direct contact with Jews 2. Negative opinions of Jews in the community 3. Negative opinions of Jews in the family 4. Conflicts from the past 5. The Jews' own responsibility for these attitudes 6. Blaming the Jews for different misfortunes and failures 7. Some people's hostility toward foreigners 8. The participation of Jews in the Communist government after the war 9. The fact that Jews have always made out better 10. Other. Please elaborate ........
64. Many of the crimes in Auschwitz and other concentration camps did not in fact happen. (yes-they did not happen, no-they happened)
65. Knowledge of the atrocities committed in Auschwitz and other concentration camps should be conveyed to the next generations as a lesson for all mankind (yes, no)
66. Do you agree with the statement that the Jews suffered most in the war? (yes, no, hard to say)
67. Do you think that the Poles helped the Jews during the war?
1. Yes, as much as they could 2. They could have done more 3. They did not help at all 4. Hard to say 5. I have another opinion about it. What?
68. Do you think the Poles could have saved more Jews during the war, or not?
1. Certainly 2. Rather 3. Rather not 4. Certainly not 5. Hard to say
69. If you think that the Poles could have saved more Jews during the war, why didn't they?
70. Should the Jews get special treatment and care because of their wartime losses and suffering? (yes, no, don't know)
The statements below describe different ways parents treat their children. Read them and underline the answers that best describe how you were treated by your mother or the person who took care of you.
My mother or the person who specially took care of me:
71. Spoke well of me (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
72. Ridiculed me and made fun of me in front of others (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
73. Didn't take me seriously (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
74. Treated me so that I felt needed and wanted (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
75. Punished me even when I didn't deserve it (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
76. Did not keep promises to me (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
77. Treated me as if I were a burden (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
78. Never praised me when I deserved it (strongly agree, rather agree, neither agree nor disagree, rather disagree, strongly disagree)
Personal data
1. Sex 1. Female 2. Male
2. Age
3. Permanent residence
1. village 2. city with 10,000 to 50,000 residents 3. city with 50,000 to 100,000 residents 4. city with over 100,000 residents
4. Kind of school
1. general high school 2. technical high school 3. vocational school
5. What was your average end-of-term mark last year?
6. What is your parents' education. Mark with an x
Father Mother 1. elementary school 2. basic vocational 3. secondary 4. college 5. don't know
7. Are you 1. Catholic 2. Member of another Church/religion (name it ........ 3. not a member of any Church/religion
8. Are you 1. deeply religious 2. religious 3. undecided, but attached to religious traditions 4. indifferent to religious matters 5. not a believer
9. How often do you go to church? 1. at least once every 2 weeks 2. at least once a month 3. a few times a year 4. never
What question gave you the most trouble?
Thank you for participating in the research.

II. The Complete-The-Sentence Test

Complete the statements below. Write the first thing that comes to mind and go on to the next statement, and do not think too long about completing the statements.
1. The people who get on my nerves are
2. The Germans like
3. I think my father seldom
4. I always wanted
5. The people I purposely avoid are
6. I think that most Jews are
7. My mother and I
8. When I am not around, my acquaintances
9. To me the future seems
10. When I see a Gypsy
11. Overweight people are
12. My religion
13. I think that a good patriot
14. People on unemployment benefits are
15. My greatest weakness is
16. All politicians are
17. I wish my father
18. I think that a true Pole
19. I most like people
20. My family treats me like
21. National minorities should
22. My fears sometimes make me
23. Everyone sick with AIDS should
24. Most of my acquaintances don't know
25. I don't like that national minorities
26. My mother
27. In our country the Gypsies should
28. The people who make me afraid of them with their behavior are
29. If I belonged to a national minority
30. The worst thing I ever did
31. The basic characteristic of the Russians is
32. I would do everything to forget
33. All homosexuals are
34. What I would most desire in life
35. Racial prejudices are
36. My views sometimes make me
37. Most Poles
38. I love my mother but
39. I don't like people who
40. If I were a youth group leader
41. Most Ukrainians
42. If only my father would
43. Religious prejudices are
44. I could be very happy if
45. I don't like it that the Germans
46. When everything is stacked up against me
47. My strongest memory from childhood is
48. The presence of national minorities in Poland
49. In school my teachers
50. No one knows that I am afraid of
51. Attacks on foreigners by Polish skinheads are
52. When I was a child my family
53. I am waiting for
54. The crimes at Auschwitz
55. A person's nationality
56. A true Catholic
57. My greatest mistake was
58. Anti-Jewish graffiti
59. When I was younger I felt guilty
60. Would not object if an Arab
61. I think that most mothers
62. For Poland, entering the European Union is
63. In relation to the Poles, the Russians are
64. I would like to learn more about
65. I would not like to have a date with

References

Bogardus E. (1959), Social Distance, Ohio.

Fey W.F. (1955) "Acceptance by Others and Its Relation to Acceptance of Self and Others: A Revaluation." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50 (1955), pp. 274-276.

Kleinpenning G.L. (1993), Structure and Content of Racist Beliefs. An Empirical Study of Ethnic Attitudes, Stereotypes and Ethnic Hierarchy, Universiteit Utrecht.

Kofta M., Sędek G. (1992), "Struktura poznawcza stereotypu etnicznego: bliskooć wyborów parlamentarnych a przejawy antysemityzmu." [In:] Kolokwia Psychologiczne 1992 nr 1.

Mindell A. (1998), Siedząc w ogniu. Wykorzystanie konfliktów i różnic między ludźmi dla transformacji dużych grup [Sitting in the Fire. Large Group Transformation Using Conflict and Diversity], Warszawa.

Rohner R., "Patterns of Parenting: the Warmth Dimension in Worldwide Perspective." [In:] Psychology and Culture, Boston 1994, pp. 113-120.

Yeh C. J. (1998), "Ethnic Identity Development." [In:] Teaching About Culture, Ethnicity & Diversity. Exercises and Planned Activities. Ed. By T. M. Singelis, Thousand Oaks.

Back to Contributions