Contributions

Lazar Nikolic
Belgrade, Serbia
lnikolic@f.bg.ac.yu
lazarnik@afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.yu

PATTERNS OF GENDER AND ETHNIC PREJUDICES IN THE CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY DISCRIMINATION

 

Redundant prejudice is a positive or negative attitude toward a person based on his or her membership in a particular group or particular individual experience. The behavioral component of prejudice is discrimination, which involves treating persons differently, whether positively or negatively, based only on their group membership.

What feeds and could check the development of prejudice? As with all attitudes, learning plays an important role. Parents, peers, and the media all provide input, informing us of the supposed characteristics of particular groups. People with an authoritarian personality tend to be obedient towards their superiors and domineering towards subordinates (authoritarianism). They are prejudiced in favor of their own groups and against other groups (ethnocentrism). This also refers to those unwilling to accept their own faults but willing to place them on members of other groups (projection) (Sdorow, 1993). Authoritarian persons tend to be prejudiced against other religious groups and ethnic minorities, as well as against those of inferior gender or age groups and representatives of some marginalized statuses.

Researchers have found factors that predispose people to develop authoritarian personalities. Such people tend to have parents who gave them little affection, relied on physical punishment, and refused to accept any back talk. This pattern of child rearing induces frustration, which leads to feelings of anger. Afraid to direct this anger against their parents, children may direct it to members of other groups, who become the targets of prejudice and serve as scapegoats (Hogg & Sunderland, 1991).

One of the most important factors in interpersonal attraction is group conformity. "Prejudiced people perceive stereotyped groups as having attitudes that are different from those of their own groups" (Insko, Nacoste, & Moe, 1983). In fact, when there is little or no pressure to discriminate, gender or ethnicity is less important than attitude similarity in determining gender and ethnic discrimination.

Gender discrimination

Parenthood in today's Serbia is settled in a specific societal, cultural, and historical context. Within patriarchy there exists local differences based on too many adjectives - cultural, economic, political differences. The domestic Yugoslav society has recently weathered "communist" experience, chaotic transition and international isolation which has prompted women to tamp their problems just to survive. This difference is expressed in something that Marina Blagojevic calls self-sacrificing micro matriarchy (Blagojevic, 1997:163). Self-sacrificing micro matriarchy "implies that families are becoming "mother centered" in the sense of driving force of family life, that there is a structure of authority that is hidden… but active, that members of a family have a large degree of dependence on women in satisfying essential nutritional and hygienic needs, that there is an inclination towards matrilineal kinship, and that there is emphasized 'women's politics of networking', that women actually achieve their domination, concentrate and even expand their power, through self'-sacrifice… Self-sacrifice of women (in FR Yugoslavia) is seen as specific women's strategy to improve the individual position of women, to strengthen their self-confidence and to help them reconstruct their identity in period of 'transition'" (Blagojevic, 1996:636). Contrary to this prevailing strategy of self-sacrificing only a very small number of women dare to make their individual strategies (cohabitation, birth out of wedlock, living alone, serial monogamy, homosexual relations, high career commitment,…) (Blagojevic, 1996:637).

In reference to violence in marriage (according to the survey by the Belgrade UNICEF Office (Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999), more than three quarters of the women estimated that their relationship with their husbands was harmonious. However, 27% stated that no violence was used in the case of a dispute with their partners, while more than half of them stated that violence was sometimes used, and 16.3% claimed that this happened frequently. Such results raise the issue of what the women in the FRY imply by a "harmonious relationship" and "normal" marriage. This may point to women being reconciled to their subordinate role.

By comparing different regions of ex-Yugoslavia , violence was extremely strong. Everywhere there was dissolution, deconstruction of the "patriarchal order", not yet replaced with anything better. In 85% of cases. husbands were beating their wives often. Expressions like "It is a matter of great pride to beat a woman", or "If you do not beat your wife for 40 days she becomes crazy", indicate domestic violence as "normal" (Erlich, according to Blagojevic, 1996:633).

In general, Yugoslav women know little of either basic health care. Almost half of the women go to see the physician only when they are ill, and never for preventive purposes. Only one quarter of the women have regular gynacological check-ups. 35% of women almost never have any check-ups. Modern contraception is used by 27.7%. 12.1% had more than three abortions, ranking Yugoslavia as a leader in European countries (three abortions in proportion to one birth). A 1997 survey by the Belgrade UNICEF Office involved a sample of women between 20 and 55, from all parts of FR Yugoslavia (FRY). A great majority (71.5%) had secondary or university level education. This study also showed that, despite the fact that elementary education in the FRY is compulsory, almost 7% of Yugoslav women have an incomplete elementary education. Only 5.2% of women are skilled or highly skilled workers. Trades are mainly reserved for men. Independently, despite the future risks, almost 50% left school because of family reasons, i. e. because of marriage or childbirth (Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999: 246-249).

Women are accomplices in their own self-sacrificing. The ethics of self-sacrifice are profoundly implanted in the consciousness of women in FR Yugoslavia. (Blagojevic, 1996: 637). The model of self-sacrificing, micro matriarchy is confirmed by the high acceptance of the item: "Every normal women should sacrifice for her children". Even 3/4 of woman considered that "parents should do everything for their children even if that means self-sacrifice". Less then 1/4 considered that "parents have a right to their own lives". The more a woman is educated, the more she is inclined to satisfactory motherhood (not to extremely sacrificial and moderately sacrificial strategies) (Blagojevic, 1996: 641, 626).

Examples of Discrimination in Yugoslav Legislation

Some criminal offences against the dignity of person and morals

"According to the existing criminal legislation, rape is defined as an act involving a woman as a passive object, if she is not married to perpetrator. The act of rape committed by husbands is not a criminal offence according to the existing criminal legislation. The same applies to forced intercourse and intercourse with infirm persons. Therefore, the marital status of women is a basis for discrimination. Definition of all criminal acts (except rape, the victims of whom is always a woman) envisage that men can be victims only if "unnatural fornication" is committed against them, implying sodomy. There are provisions in criminal legislation penalizing homosexual rape. However, criminal legislation does not take into account the situation in which a man is a victim and a woman the perpetrator of rape, forced intercourse, intercourse with an infirm person, as well as intercourse base on abuse of authority" (source: Belgrade Center for Human Rights, 1999)

Ethnic discrimination

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY): Between the two remaining republics of FR Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, in the fragmented FRY, significant tension has developed. Ethnic minorities make up a third of the population of the FRY. The violation of their rights is the most frequent and most widespread form of human rights violation. Taken to the extreme in Kosovo and Metohija, ethnic differences there have provoked conflicting names for the same region. Very often it is possible to identify the ethnicity and the political affiliation and prejudices of the interlocutor by the names that he or she uses (Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999:357).

The greatest number of cases of discrimination have been noted in relation to ethnic Albanians. Muslims are frequently exposed to discrimination, due to the unfavorable stance of Yugoslav authorities during the war in neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1994). Discrimination, though not often mentioned, is particularly widespread in relation to the Roma. There is no strong organization that would represent their interests and protect their rights (Human Rights Violations in Times of Armed Conflict, 1995; Human Rights in Serbia and Montenegro, 1996:15-73; Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999:243-246).

Former Yugoslav republics, now independent states: The violation of minority rights, as the most frequent form of human rights violations, is also evident in the other states that have been created on the territory of the former Yugoslav state. Human rights organizations have devoted a great many specialized reports to this topic. Researches of Bosnia and Croatia indicate the serious violations of human rights during their wars (see: "Ethnic-Cleansing in Serb-held Bosnia" in: Human Rights Violation in the Territory of former Yugoslavia 1991-1995 (1997), Belgrade: Humanitarian Law Center; Documentation Regarding the Violation of Human Rights, Ethnic Cleansing and Crimes Committed by Croatian Armed Formations against the Serbian Civilian Population in Croatia, Belgrade: Serbian Information Center, etc.)

Examples of Discrimination in Yugoslav Legislation:

"The situation and status of refugees in the FRY are governed by relevant international instruments, in particular the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees . According to the Refugee Act of Serbia refugees are: "Serbs and citizens of other nationalities who were forced to leave their places of residence in other republics and take refuge in the territory of the Republic of Serbia due to pressures of Croatian authorities or authorities of (the) other republic…". The fact that the text begins with words "Serbs and citizens of other nationalities" gives ample proof of the discriminatory character of the act. Serbs are in a certain manner distinguished from other refugees, although their legal and social status must be equal. In addition, the Act deals only with refugees from the territory of the former SFRY who were persecuted by authorities of the former Yugoslav republics. (It is not clear how the Act could apply to refugees from countries other then the former SFRY)" (Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999:59).

"The Special Conditions of the Sales of Property has been strongly criticized ever since it was adopted for its discriminatory provisions, which restrict the right to enjoy property. The main objective of this Act was to maintain ethnic balance and prevent members of minority ethnic groups in certain parts of the territory of Serbia to sell property and leave the area to members of the local majority. The discriminatory character of this Act is even more obvious in view of the fact that it does not apply to Vojvodina, a region which is also inhabited by an ethnically mixed population. The real purpose of the Act was to prevent the migration of Serbs from Kosovo, not the desire to maintain the ethnic balance of all groups that live there. The Act also provided for punishment for real estate transactions that are carried out without official consent, but only for buyers. In reality buyers have been predominantly ethnic Albanians" (Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998, 1999:58)

Prejudice can affect not only women or mixed ethnicities within FRY, but also can cause a global and regional problems. It depends on existing predisposition, public relations and media packing.

References

  1. Blagojevic, M. (1996) "Motherhood in Serbia: Self-Sacrificing Paradox", Sociology, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 4, pp. 625-648
  2. Blagojevic, M. (1997) Roditeljstvo i fertilitet ("Parenthood in Serbia in the 90-ties"), Beograd: ISIFF
  3. Hogg, M. A. & Sunderland, J. (1991) "Self Esteem and Intergroup Discrimination in the Minimal Group Paradigm", British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 51-62
  4. Insko, C. Nacoste, R. & Moe, J. (1983) "Belief Congruence and racial discrimination: Review of the Evidence and Critical Evaluation", European Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 153 -174
  5. Kandido-Jaksic, M. (1995) "Idealan muskarac i idealna zena" ("Ideal Male and Ideal Female: Gender Roles, Gender Traits, and Stereotypical Patriarchal Views"), Sociology, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp. 149-173
  6. Opalic, P. (1999) "Moguci psiho(pato)loski koreni sukoba izmedju Srba i Hrvata" ("Possibilities of psycho(pato)logical roots in the conflict between Serbs and Croats"), in: Krestic, (ed.) Srbi u Hrvatskoj (Serbs in Croatia), Belgrade: SANU, forthcoming
  7. Sdorow, L. M. (1993) Psychology, WBC Brown & Benchmark Publishers
  8. White, J. (1988) Contemporary Moral Problems, St. Paul: West Publishing Company

Documentation

  1. Human Rights Violation in the Territory of former Yugoslavia 1991-1995 (1997) Belgrade: Humanitarian Law Center
  2. Human Rights in Serbia and Montenegro (1996), Belgrade, Humanitarian Law Center
  3. Human Rights Violations in Times of Armed Conflict (1995), Belgrade: Humanitarian Law Center
  4. Human Rights in Yugoslavia 1998 (1999), Belgrade: Belgrade Center for Human Rights
  5. Documentation Regarding the Violation of Human Rights, Ethnic Cleansing and Crimes Committed by Croatian Armed Formations against the Serbian Civilian Population in Croatia, Belgrade: Serbian Information Center

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